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Theology
received great attention from the Ibadhis. Although little was
done in the initial stages of the movement, the early Ibadhi
Imams did not oppose this kind of study.
There were
no special works written on the subject during the time of Jabir
b. Zaid or Abu Ubaidah Muslim. The documents surviving from
early Ibadhi leaders, such as Abdullah b. Ibadh’s letter to Abd
al-Malik b. Marwan, and the Sirah of Salim b. Dhakwan, were
concerned mainly with the political and social changes which
took place in the Muslim community, and the Ibadhis attitudes
regarding them. However, they both contained the seeds of
Ibadhi theology on certain matters. It is also reported that
Abu Ubaidah Muslim b. Abi Karimah wrote responses to theological
problems sent to him from Ibadhis of North Africa,244 but
those responses have not as yet been discovered by modern
scholars.
Special
works on theology started to appear after conflicts on certain
matters had taken place among the Ibadhis. The first in the
field among Ibadhis of the East was Abdullah b. Yazid al-Fazari
who wrote a number of books to express his views.245
The earliest
work written by the Ibadhis of north Africa is K. al-Tawhid al-Kabir,
by Isa b. Alqamah al-Misri. Information about this book is very
limited, but from what is reported, it appears that it was
written to refute the views of Abdullah b. Yazid al-Fazari.246
Isa b. Alqamah was described by Abu Ammar Abd al-Kafi as one of
the expert Ibadhi theologians. He added that he had
convincingly refuted the views of those who asserted that the
names and the qualities of God were created.247
Although the
Ibadhis of North Africa had faced strong opposition from other
neighbouring schisms, namely the Mu’tazilites during the Imamate
of Abd al-Wahhab b. Abd al-Rahman b. Rustam (168-190 A.H.) to
the extent that the Imam was obliged to seek help from
theologians from Jabal Nufusah to refute the Mu’tazili views in
Tahert,248 there
is no information about special books on theology having been
written by the Ibadhis of North Africa during this period.
During the
Imamate of Aflah b. Abd al-Wahhab (190-240 H.) new controversies
arose among Ibadhis in this field which needed settlement. It
was during this period that the Khalafiyah, Naffathiyah and
Husainiyah groups, mentioned earlier, were founded, and their
arguments had to be refuted.249
As these splinter groups had been formed in the areas around
Jabal Nufusah, Nufusi theologians assumed the burden of
discussing and disproving their arguments.250
Among the extant works which were composed during this period
are two short treatises of Amrus b. Fath; (a) al-Dainunah al-Safiyah,
and (b) al-Radd ala al-Nakithah wa - Ahmad b. al-Husain.251
Two other works were well know during this period; they were
both on theology and written by Abd al-Khaliq al-Fazzani.
Unfortunately, these two works are still lost.252
Among the
theologians of other Ibadhi groups, only Ahmad b. a-Husain wrote
a book on theology entitled K. al-Maqalat.253
During his Imamate 9240-281 H.), Abu al-Yaqzan Muhammad
b. Aflah wrote his treatise on the creation of the Qur’an.254
It is reported that he was a great theologian, and wrote forty
books on the subject of 'capacity,' (istilaah), alone, apart
from a number of letters and responses.255
It is not
known if any other works were written after this period up to
the time of Abu Khazr Yaghla b. Zaltaf (d.380 H.) who composed
his book known as K. Abu Khazr Yaghla b. Zaltaf,256 in
reply to questions sent to him from some Ibadhi scholars, after
Abu Khazr had settled in Egypt.257
A
contemporary and student of Abu Hazm, Abu Nuh Said b. Zanghil
also made contributions in this field. His book is known in
Ibadhi sources as K. Said b. Zanghil. This book is still lost,258 but
from the citations by al-Barradi in his commentary on the poem o
Abu Bakr Ahmad b. al-Nazr, Shifau al-haim fi sharhi badi al-Daaim,
it appears that Ibn Zanghil's book dealt with the central
theological problems such as "What must not remain unknown of
the faith" ما لا يسع جهله من الدين
The 'Vision', 'Capacity', the 'creation' of the Qur’an, the
speech of God,' etc.259
Both scholars, Abu Khazr and Abu Nuh, took an active part in the
last attempt at reviving the Ibadhi Imamate in North Africa.260
In later
periods further contributions to this field were made. A great
attention was paid to speculative theology, and a remarkable
number of important works was written. This was largely due to
the instigation of the Ibadhi scholar Abu Muhammad Abdullah b.
Muhammad b. Bakr (d. 440 H.) originally from Farsattah in Jabal
Nufusah. he moved to Ajillu in southern Algeria and formed the
Halqah and Azzabah councils.261
He used to encourage his students to study theology. Although
there are no complete works of theology ascribed to him, some of
his views were included in K. al-Tuhaf by his student Sulaiman
b. Yakhalaf. Abu al-Rabi Sulaiman b. Yakhlaf started teaching
theology in Jerba where he was studying jurisprudence with Abu
Muhammad Wislan. A large number of Ibadhi students, from
different parts of Ibadhi countries of North Africa, gathered
around him to study theology. It was after the year 450 H. that
his students asked him to write a book on theology. After an
initial reluctance, he agreed to their wish and allowed them to
write down his lecturers, which he later edited and approved.262
This work took a form of a detailed book of two volumes, and was
known as K. al-Tuhaf.263
Comparing
this book with extant earlier works, it is the most
comprehensive work, and contains detailed discussions on the
following topics.
Part 1.
What must not remain unknown of the faith; walayah and baraah;
command and prohibition; the speech of God; faith and infidelity
(kufr); enjoining good and prohibiting bad; knowledge and
ignorance; prophethood and the Message (al-risalah); unknown
prohibitions; individual judgement and when it is lawful; proofs
for the existence of another world; the 'stages' of the Ibadhi
community (masalik al-din); on regarding opponent Muslims as
polytheists and evil-doers (fussaq); eternity in Hell; the
vision; Ibadhis opinion of the people of al-Nahr; 'divine
decree'; 'Names' and 'attributes' of God; God's 'friendship' and
'enmity;' having sexual intercourse in the prohibited parts not
per vulvam; on the undecided case of the two 'Muslims' suspected
of killing each other; the Proof of God; the Imamate; Friday
service; gifts from rulers; ''help' and 'guidance' (al-awn
wa-i'ismah); discussion of Ibn al-Husain's doctrine on God's
command and prohibition concerning polytheists. The last
eleven topics are the questions on which Wahbi Ibadhis differed
from the rest of the Ibadhi groups.
In Part II
the following subjects are discussed; the obligation of
repentance; obligations (faraid); emigration (hijrah); the
attitude towards the apostate; the testimony of the dissident
Muslims; the wisdom of God; love of God; substance (jawhar) and
accident (arad); the motions; the 'attributes', senses; and
finally, the Unity of God and refutation of anthropomorphism and
equalizing things with God.
The contents
of the book show that it was designed to cover all known
theological topics, and discuss contrary views of other groups
such as Qadarites, Murjiites, Sufris, and Hashwiyah, as well as
the views of the other Ibadhi splinter groups. |
