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Among the
main questions on which opinion differed so much in Islamic
theology in general are the questions of creation of the Qur’an,
and the work of God. Reports on the early state of Ibadhi
theology show that this problem was discussed in a limited way.
In fact, the only piece of information on this matter was
concerned with the question of adding to the Qur’an or omitting
from it. Jabir b. Zaid said, "Ibn Abbas was asked about the
Qur’an whether anything could be added to, or omitted from it?
He said "The Prophet said, 'God curses him who adds to the
Qur’an.'" Then he said, "He who disbelieves in one letter
disbelieves in the whole Qur’an"95.
Jabir also reported that 'Uqbah b. Amir al-Juhani said, "The
Prophet led us at the dawn prayer; he recited the two chapters
(of Daybreak and Men) (al-Mua'awwadhatayn), then he said, 'O
Uqbah, these two suras are the best of the suras of the Qur’an,
the book of Psalms, the Bible, and the Torah.'" 'Uqbah said,
"Some people say that they are not part of the Qur’an - they
lied and sinned96.
It is
further reported that Ibn 'Abbas said, "if anyone adds to the
Qur’an or omits from it, he will be infidel to Muslims for that
reason." He further described the Qur’an as God's word and
proof for His worshippers, and the guide (imam) of His servants
which will be the witness against them on the Day of Judgement97.
There was no
mention of the question of Qur’an being created or eternal. It
was described by Ibn 'Abbas as the speech of God (kalam), proof
(hujjah) and guide (imam).
The question
of adding or omitting from the Qur’an was dealt with to
establish the Ibadhi attitude, as opposed to the Kharijite
branch of al-Maymuniyah, followers of Maymun b. Imran, who
maintained that the chapter containing the story of Joseph is
not from the Qur’an, and denied that a love story could be a
part of the Holy Book98.
As for the two chapters of al-Falaq and al-Nas, it is also
reported that the celebrated Companion Abdullah b. Mas’ud
refused for some time to include them in his text of the Qur’an,
then afterwards he did include them99.
On the other hand, it is reported that Ubaiy b. Kaab maintained
that the dua recited after 'witr' prayer is a part of the Qur’an100.
It is possible that some people, being influenced by the
attitude of Ibn Mas’ud maintained that the two last chapters of
the Qur’an were just an invocation (dua). Ibadhi authorities,
in order to avoid any confusion that may be caused by the views
ascribed to both Ibn Mas’ud and Ubaiy b. Kaab, set forth those
Traditions reported from Ibn Abbas and Uqbah b. Amir to settle
the matter.
As for the
question of the creation of the Qur’an, it is not known whether
al-Rabi b. Habib or Wail b. Aiyub, his successor, has formed any
decision about it. As for Abdullah b Yazid al-Fazari, the
Nukkarite theologian, he approached the topic in the same way as
Jabir b. Zaid and discussed only the question of addition and
omission to or from the Qur’an101.
The discussion of the creation of the Qur’an in Ibadhi circles
took place in Oman first during the early decades of the third
century H. al-Fadl b. al-Hawwari, (d.278 H.) said that Ibadhi
Shaikhs among whom were al-Waddah b. Uqbah, Said b. Muhriz,
Muhammad b. Hashim, Muhammad b. Mahbub, and others, met in a
house in Dama in Oman and discussed the Qur’an; Muhammad b.
Mahbub said, "I say that Qur’an is created." On hearing this,
Muhammad b. Hashim became angry and said, "I shall go out of
Oman and shall never stay in it." Ibn Mahbub thought that Ibn
Hashim was referring to him so he said, "It is I, who must leave
Oman, for I am a stranger in it"102.
However, it
is reported that the same Shaikhs assembled together afterwards
and Muhammad b. Mahbub recanted from his former attitude in
order to avoid the split.103
According to
Abu Ya’qub al-Warijlani, this question of the creation of the
Qur’an was introduced to Muslims by Abu Sakin al-Disani of
Persian origin, who came to Basrah for the purpose of corrupting
the Muslim community; it was he who raised this question.104
This story reported by al-Warijlani may not be true, but it
shows that such arguments which lead to conflict were not
welcomed, and were not expected from Muslims.
Ibadhis held
different views on this question. In Oman there were three
views by leading scholars of the third century A.H.:
a)
Those who maintained that the Qur’an is the word of God and it
is not a quality of God, either of essence or of action. This
view is held by Abu Ali Musa b. Ali (d. 230 A.H.) and others.
b)
Those who did not come to any conclusive attitude on the
question, but held that the Qur’an is the word of God and His
revelation to Muhammad, and maintained that this is an issue
upon which the Muslims may properly remain uninformed (mimma
yasa'u jahluhu). This was the attitude of Muhammad b. Mahbub.
c)
Those who rejected the view that the Qur’an is created and took
the attitude of 'reservation' (wuquf) concerning those who
maintain that Qur’an is created. This was the attitude of
Sulaiman b. al-Hakam, al-Waddah b. Uqbah, Muhammad b. Hashim and
other.105
The question remained an issue in which there was disagreement
among the Ibadhis of the 'east' until a later date. Abu Ya’qub
al-Warijlani (d. 750 A.H.) said that when he asked Ahmad al-Hadrami
in Mecca about the Qur’an, he replied, "The people of Oman say
that it is not created, the people of Sharaf Abad say that it is
created, and as for us, the people of Hadramawt, we are in
between, neither with these nor with the other."106
However, all these views were regarded as the result of personal
opinion which allows disagreement and does not affect the faith.107
As for the
Ibadhis of North Africa, they were all of one single opinion
holding that the Qur’an is created. The earliest document
dealing with this question is the treatise composed by the
Rustumid Imam, Abu al-Yaqzan Muhammad b. Aflah (d. 281 H.), in
which he discussed the question in detail, presenting strong
argumentation to support the doctrine of the creation of the
Qur’an.108
The
subsequent works by authors from North Africa adopted the same
attitude as Imam Muhammad b. Aflah. How did it happen that the
Ibadhis of North Africa adopted one clear view on this question,
while the Ibadhis of the 'East' were so confused about it? Was
it because of the influence of the Mu'tazilites, as already
suggested by some European scholars, and if so, why was this
influence so effective in north Africa and less effective in the
'East'? In support of the view held by Nallino that the Ibadhis
of North Africa were influenced by the Mu'tazilites with regard
to the doctrine of the creation of the Qur’an: It is possible
that this influence found its way to Ibadhi theology in north
Africa through Muhammad b. Aflah, the Rustumid Iman, who
composed the first work on the question. It is likely that he
was convinced of this doctrine whole imprisoned for some time in
Baghdad with one of the Abbasid Caliphs.109
Since no one of the Ibadhi Imams of North Africa prior to him
had discussed the question, Abu al-Yaqzan was able to introduce
his own opinion for the first time. Being the Imam of the whole
Ibadhi state of North Africa, his followers unanimously accepted
his view.
On the other
hand, it is possible that the doctrine of the creation of the
Qur’an was developed naturally and independently by Ibadhi
scholars on the basis of their view of God and His attributes.
However, the fact remains that the Ibadhis in their early stage
did not deal with this question from this approach, and when
they did, the Mu'tazilite view of the creation of the Qur’an had
already spread widely among them. |
