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The
relations between Muslims and non-Muslims was defined in the
Qur’an. The Qur’an mentioned three different groups of people,
the Polytheists, the People of the Book, and hypocrites. As for
the two first groups, relations of the Muslims with each group
in terms of war and peace were made clear in the Qur’an and were
observed by the Prophet. The civil wars among Muslims brought
about new problems to the Muslim community. These wars started
when 'Uthman b. Affan was killed by fellow Muslims, and
continued between 'Ali the fourth Caliph on one side, and Talhan
and al-Zubair on the other, then between 'Ali and Mu'awiyah, as
also between 'Ali and the people of al-Nahr. During these wars,
each group was claiming the justification of fighting the other
on religious terms, each group with its own arguments and
proofs. information about this period is very confused, and a
lot of it may have been so formulated later as to support the
claims of each of the conflicting groups. Ibadhi authorities
reported five detergent attitudes held by Companions concerning
the question of Uthman.
a)
Those who held that Uthman deserves to be killed by Muslims for
his innovations. The Muslims tried for six years to make him
change them, and keep to the path of his predecessors or
resign. When he refused to agree to them they killed him. His
blood was lawful for being unjust and insolent. They called him
tyrant (ja'ir), profligate (fasiq), unjust (zalim), and
infidelingrate' (kafir kufr ni'mah). Among this group were the
Companions, Abdullah b. Mas’ud, Ammar b Yasir, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari,
Abd al-Rahman b. Awf, Amr b. Muhammad b. Maslamah, and Zaid b.
Thabit, and most of the Ansar.
b)
Those who held that the question of civil war (fitnah) among the
Companions was a matter of personal judgement (ijtihad) he who
was correct is to be rewarded, and he who was wrong is to be
excused. Some even say that both sides were correct. This
latter opinion is ascribed to Ali b. Abi Talib.
c)
Those who say that Uthman had repented for his innovations, and
that he was killed after he had repented, therefore his
opponents were wrong. This was the opinion of the Companions
Talhah, al-Zubair and A'ishah.
d)
Those who reserved their opinion on the civil war and refused to
take part in it and they were in doubt about the whole
situation. Among these were Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, Abdullah b.
Umar, Muhammad b. Maslamah and others.
e)
Finally, the attitude of Mu'awiyah and Amr b. al-As who held
that Uthman was right all the way and claimed revenge for his
death65.
However, the
civil wars left their stamp on Islamic history up to our own
time. The political, intellectual, and religious life of the
Muslims was coloured with those early opinions formed by
different groups and authorities. Apart from Ali's party which
developed as the Shiite school, and the supporters of Mu'awiyah,
there was the third party which refused the leadership of both
men and was massacred by both men - at al-Nahrawan by Ali, and
afterwards at a al-Nukhailah by Mu'awiyah. They were in Ali's
Army but when he accepted arbitration they broke away from him
for leaving the judgement of the Qur’an to the judgement of
men. As their previous Imam Ali b. Abi Talib gave up his right
to the Imamate by accepting arbitration, they decided to elect a
new Imam, and for the first time a non-Qurashite leader was
elected as Amir al-mu'minin. The Azdi Companion Abdullah b.
Wahb al-Rasibi was elected and he led his men in the battle
against Ali b. Abi Talib, and the whole Army of Abdullah b. Wahb
consisting of more than two thousand pious Muslims (ahl salat wa
siyam) was killed by Ali, in that battle of al-Nahrawan.
This group
was known by four different names: al-Muhakkimah, Ahl al-Nahr,
al-Haruriyah, and al-Khawarij. The first name was derived from
their motto, "La hukma illa lillah." And or the two second
names, al-Haruriyah is derived from the name of a place, Harura',
where some of them gathered near Kufah, and other name, Ahl al-Nahr,
is derived from the name of the place of the battlefield, al-Nahrawan.
With regard to the last name Khawarij, it is suggested that the
name was derived from the expression Kharaja (came out), -
either out from the community as their opponents like to
interpret the name, or out of their homes as emigrants to God,
as their sympathisers explain the name on the basis of a
Qur’anic verse. It is also suggested that this name was used
for this group by their opponents as a reference to the first
work of a well-known Tradition of the Prophet which describes a
group of people which will emerge from the Muslim community,
"From the descendants of this man there will arise (sayakhruju)
people who fluently read the Book of Allah, but it will not pass
beyond their throats. They will pass through religion as an
arrow passes through a hunted animal. Methinks, said the
narrator, he added: If I find them, I shall kill them, as
Thamud were killed"66.
This
political situation gave rise to several questions on which
conflicting opinions appeared. Among these questions was the
attitude of the Muslims towards tyranny or unjust rulers, i.e.
those rulers who do not follow the shari’ah. Kharijites in
general held that their opponents were polytheists (mushrikum),
then they differed regarding the principle of religious
dissimulation. (taqiyah). The Azariqah, followers of Nafii b.
al-Azraq held that khuruj or hijrah to their camp is an
obligatory duty, and regarded the home of their opponents as dar
al-harb, the land of war. |
