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It is not known precisely when
the Ibadhi School started gaining followers in North Africa. At
the time when the Ibadhi School was established in Basrah during
the second half of the first century H., Islam itself gained a
stronghold over North Africa in spite of the initial opposition
it encountered from the Berbers. According to Lewicki, the
people of Jabal Nufusah remained firm Christians after the
Muslim conquest until they were converted directly to the Ibadhi
school.80 This claim however is contradicted by other sources
who claim that the people of Nufusah accepted Islam in mass
without any struggle whatsoever.81 It is also a
well-established fact that Islam was spread as far as Ghadamas,
south-west of Jabal Nufusah, by 'Uqbah b. 'Amr, leader of the
army dispatched westwards by 'Amr b. al-'As who conquered
Tripoli in 23H. This will lend support to the claim that some
of the Nufusis had become Muslims since then, but later adopted
Ibadhi views. There is authentic information that a few Nufusi
Christian families still existed in Jabal Nufusah after the
Ibadhi school established itself in the Jabal.82 Moreover,
there is sound evidence that certain Nufusi families remained
non-Ibadhi Muslims long after the Ibadhi school predominated in
this area. Among these was the family of Abu Mansur Ilyas of
Tindimmirah, one of the most important families of Nufusah.83
It is difficult to reach a definite conclusion on this matter
with so little and conflicting information to hand.
The name of a certain Salamah b.
Sa'd al-Hadrami is connected with Basrah to North Africa to
propagate the teaching of his school. No specific date is
reported of the mission or the arrival of Salamah in North
Africa. However, the report of reliable Ibadhi authorities that
Salamah came to Qairawan together with 'Ikrimah, the client of
Ibn 'Abbas,85 indicates that the mission took place before the
years 105-107H., the dates given for the death of 'Ikrimah.86
Ibadhi scholars regarded the role of Salamah b. Sa'd in the
Maghrib as comparable with that of 'Abdullah b. Ibadh in the
Mashriq.87 They connected the expansion of the Ibadhi school
with his visit to North Africa, which resulted in the mission of
the students known afterwards as the bearers of learning,' (Hamalat
al-'ilm), to Basrah to study Ibadhi teaching under the second
Imam of the Ibadhi school, Abu 'Ubaidah Muslim b. Abi Karimah.
The fact which should not be
forgotten is that when Salamah b. Sa'd came to North Africa,
large Ibadhi communities had already existed in some areas of
central North Africa, namely the western part of Libya. It is
possible that the Ibadhi views gained followers first among the
Arab settlers who came in tribal groups for the conquest of
North Africa, and then settled in the new land. They found
support among the native tribes of Nufusah, Hawwarah, Lawwatah,
Zahanah and Zanatah who saw in the Ibadhi views the true
representation of the religion of Islam which does not subject
them to any tyrannical rule, and gives the justification for
their struggle for self-rule within the new religion in equal
terms with the Arabs. It is also believed that the local people
found in Ibadhi teachings the religious incentive to oppose the
tyrannical rule of both the Umayyads and the 'Abbasids. It is
also clear that the most important role in the early Ibadhi
struggle in North Africa was played by Arabs who were of Hadrami
and Yemeni origins.
It appears that the missions of
Salamah b. Sa'd was aimed at choosing local personalities to be
sent to Basrah for training so that they could assume the burden
of Ibadhi leadership in North Africa. Such a move would make
local people regard the Ibadhi teachings as something of theirs,
and bring full Berber support for the Ibadhi cause.
One of the main ambitions of
Salamah b. Sa'd was to see a manifest Ibadhi Imamate in North
Africa. Imam 'Abd al-Rahman b. Rustam is quoted as saying, "I
wish that this affair (i.e. the Ibadhi Imamate) manifests itself
even for one day from dawn to night, then I would not mind if my
head is cut off."88 There is a possible indication in these
words that the Ibadhi community in North Africa had existed
before the arrival of Salamah b. Sa'd but was still in the stage
of secrecy, (kitman), and no attempt had at that time been made
to establish the open Ibadhi Imamate.
The first attempt by Ibadhis to
establish their Imamate in North Africa began when Ilyas b.
Habib was appointed governor of Tripoli after 127H. It is
reported that Ilyas killed 'Abdullah b. Mas'ud al-Tujibi, of the
Tujib, an Arab tribe of Hadrami origin, who was one of the
leaders of the Ibadhi community of Tripoli.89 It is not known
why this Ibadhi leader was killed. Both 'Ali Mu'amar and Ihsan
'Abbas suggested that Ilyas wanted to intimidate the Ibadhis by
this act,90 the fact which indicates that the Ibadhis were a
power of a considerable weight in Tripoli and its areas at the
time. However, I think that this action may have been a direct
consequence of the successful revolts that the Ibadhis of
Hadramawt and Yemen carried out at about the same time against
the Umayyad dynasty to establish an independent Imamate. The
Umayyads would have naturally been anxious to prevent any
repetitions in other Ibadhi strongholds by taking pre-emptive
measures. It appears that Ilyas b. Habib underestimated the
power of the Ibadhis, and his action, rather than force them
into submission, aroused their anger and gave them an immediate
reason for their revolt. They elected al-Harith b. Talib al-Hadrami
as Imam. Al-Harith, with the assistance of his Qadi, 'Abd al-Jabbar
b. Qais b. Nusair b. Rashid, the client of al-'Ansar, in revenge
for 'Abdullah b. Mas'ud al-Tujibi.91 Al-Harith ruled all the
area between Qabis and Sirt, then both he and 'Abd al-Jabbar
were killed by Shu'aib b. 'Uthman, one of the leaders appointed
by 'Abd al-Rahman b. Habib to quench the Ibadhi revolt.92 The
Ibadhis then elected Abu al-Zajir Ismail b. Ziyad al-Nufusi to
lead them in their struggle. He gained as stronghold over the
areas of Tripoli.93 According to Ibadhi sources, Abu al-Zajir
was an Imam of defense, (Imam al-difa'),94 a fact which suggests
that the period under his leadership was one of continous
military struggle against his enemies and that he was not able
to establish a stable state. The first struggle for the Imamate
in North Africa took place between the years 127-132 H. After
this date the Ibadhi community reverted to secrecy, (kitman),
for eight years. After this Abu al-Khattab 'Abd al-'A'la b. al-Samh
al-Ma'afiri, one of the 'bearers of learning', was elected for
the post of Imam in Tripoli in the year 140 H. He ruled all the
area between Sirt, Qairawan and Zuwailah. But this Ibadhi
Imamate could not resist the of the 'Abbasid Caliphate, and Abu
al-Khattab was killed with some fourteen thousand of his
followers by the 'Abbasid army under the leadership of Muhammad
b. al-'Ash'ath, governor of Egypt for Abu Ja'far al-Mansur, on
the year 144 H. 95 |
